Resources
These resources will allow you to dive deeper into educational theory relevant to inquiry-based learning. First, a few websites and books are recommended. Second, a thorough annotated bibliography reveals the evidence behind inquiry-based learning. These peer-reviewed articles also offer examples of inquiry-based learning in many disciplines in higher education, including algebra, architecture, chemistry, English language arts, history, mathematics, nursing, psychology, and statistics.
Websites
Canada-based instructional resources and selected journal article summaries to support IBL, mostly aimed at K-12.
A concise website that outlines inquiry-based learning as Inquire, Research/Reflect, Evaluate, and Construct. Promotes IBL for post-secondary instruction.
Local inquiry-based expert Trevor MacKenzie details a four-step process to implementing inquiry-based learning, moving from structured to controlled, then guided and finally free inquiry. Follow him on X/Twitter here: https://twitter.com/trev_mackenzie
Books
MacKenzie, T. (2021). Inquiry mindset assessment edition: Scaffolding a partnership for equity and agency in learning. Elevate Books EDU.
Book by local author and teacher that makes clear outlines for how to co-construct learning environments and assessments with students. Lots of resources, guiding questions, and techniques provided. Aimed at K-12, but frequently relevant for post-secondary students.
Mieg, H. (Ed.) (2019). Inquiry-based learning – Undergraduate research. Springer International. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14223-0
Book focused on using inquiry-based learning in undergraduate research, primarily in relation to science education. Largely authored by German scholars, the range of topics include learning, research, and curricula informed by and engaged via IBL, and 21 chapters devoted to IBL in specific disciplines.
Vance, J. (2022). Leading with a lens of inquiry: Cultivating conditions for curiosity and empowering agency. Elevate books. Link to her website.
Aimed at teachers wanting to lead with inquiry. Emphases the need to unlearn our conventional thinking around pedagogy in order to embrace IBL.
Annotated Bibliography
Aditomo, A., Goodyear, P., Bliuc, A-M, & Ellis, R. (2013). Inquiry-based learning in higher education: Principal forms, educational objectives, and disciplinary variations, Studies in Higher Education, 38(9), 1239-1258. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2011.616584
This study focused on examples of inquiry-based learning activities provided by 224 university instructors from Australia, and shows the diversity of inquiry-based learning applications in many disciplines, and the generally broad conceptualization of inquiry-based learning. A clear distinction is made between similar educational models including problem-based learning, project-based learning, and case-based teaching.
Akaygun, S., & Adadan, E. (2021). Fostering senior primary school students’ understanding of climate change in an inquiry-based learning environment. Education, 3(49), 330-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2020.1854961
Researchers of this quasi-experimental study surveyed 68 grade six students. Post-instruction, learners showed a significant increase in climate change science understanding. Students preferred the IBL teaching model to traditional instruction, but remained unclear on some non-scientific concepts connected to the climate emergency.
Amos, R., & Levinson, R. (2019). Socio-scientific inquiry-based learning: An approach for engaging with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals through school science. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 11(1), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.18546/IJDEGL.11.1.03
Article outlining the application of socio-scientific inquiry-based learning (SSIBL) to address the UN sustainable development goals. SSIBL uses a socio-scientific lens to engage in research-based inquiries with a focus on enacting change and finding solutions connected to sustainability, demarcated into three steps: Ask, Find Out, Act. Catalyic clothing is provided as an example of interdisciplinary collaboration between an art (fashion designer) and science (chemistry) researcher, and how this might be used in training pre-service science teachers in the UK to use SSIBL. Numerous examples of possible SSIBL activities—based on 2030 SDG goals—and three case studies are provided.
Blanchard, Southerland, S. A., Osborne, J. W., Sampson, V. D., Annetta, L. A., & Granger, E. M. (2010). Is inquiry possible in light of accountability? A quantitative comparison of the relative effectiveness of guided inquiry and verification laboratory instruction. Science Education (Salem, Mass.), 94(4), 577-616. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20390
Quantitative study of 1,700 middle and high school students, comparing Level 0 (confirmation/verification) and Level 2 (guided) inquiry-based instruction. Level 2 guided inquiry resulted in better outcomes for test scores, long-term retention, and academic growth over time, especially when the teacher was comfortable and adept at facilitating inquiry-based learning. The Level 0 inquiry approach included explicit lab write-ups and worksheets, and findings were confirmed by the teacher. Level 2 inquiry approach had no lab instructions or worksheets; instead, a question or scenario was provided to examine, as well as germane background information, and students developed their own hypotheses and methodologies.
Deslauriers, L., Logan, S. McCarty, L., Miller, K., & Kestin, G. (2019). Measuring actual learning versus feeling of learning in response to being actively engaged in the classroom. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 116 (39), 19251-19257. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821936116
This study showed that, in teaching an introductory physics course in university, active learning benefited learners more. However, students perceived that passive instruction (lectures by excellent instructors) was more effective than the active learning environments, even though it was measured that students actually learned more in an active classroom. Active learning does require increased cognitive effort, yet this leads to better outcomes. The authors emphasize the importance of students understanding the need to struggle with learning the material early in the semester.
Evans, D., Evans, E., & Silva, M. R. (2014). A bicycle crash inspires an inquiry-based learning activity. Teaching Statistics, 37(1), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/test.12050
An activity designed for an introductory statistics course that explores experimental design and paired t tests. This is done using a volumeter; students immerse their hands in the volumeter to measure water displacement. While this activity is “hands-on” and perhaps is a form of confirmation inquiry, it lacks many key components of inquiry-based learning or theoretical connections to IBL. Despite experiential elements, and including questions that foster some reflection, the learner has little involvement with the design, implementation, and assessment of their learning, which is often central to IBL.
Feldt, J. E., & Petersen, E. B. (2021). Inquiry-based learning in the Humanities: Moving from topics to problems using the “Humanities imagination”. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 20(2), 155-171. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022220910368
Explores inquiry-based learning in the Humanities. Promotes the idea of teacher as ‘interlocutor’ whose role is to inspire the imaginative power of students, ask powerful questions, and connect academic scholarship with topics germane to learners. The authors elucidate the challenge of implementing IBL for learners more familiar with “consumption of pre-defined curricula and performance and pre-set forms of assessments” and unversed with the IBL educational model.
Inquiry-based learning in the Humanities: Moving from topics to problems using the “Humanities imagination”
Georgiou, Y., & Kyza, E. (2023). Fostering chemistry students’ scientific literacy for responsible citizenship through socio-scientific inquiry-based learning (SSIBL). Sustainability, 15(8), 6442. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086442
This studied the impact of socio-scientific inquiry-based learning on the topic of biofuels, founded on a more justice-oriented framework. Their two hypotheses explored the impact of SSIBL (co-designed with active participation) compared to ‘business as usual’ (worksheets focused on conceptual understanding) for grade 8 chemistry students. Those who engaged in SSIBL pedagogy had a greater sense of personal responsibility and purposeful action, and a better perception of the nature of science; those who experienced ‘business as usual’ pedagogy showed a significant decrease in both social and moral compassion and in understanding science’s relationship to society.
Gilardi, S., & Lozza, E. (2009). Inquiry-based learning and undergraduates’ professional identity development: Assessment of a field research-based course. Innovation in Higher Education, 34, 245-256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-009-9109-0
Study from Italy focused on college psychology students in an 8-month field research-based course, and how inquiry-based learning can help develop a professional identity. During the Practical Experience of Internship compulsory course learners engaged in reflexivity (examining your own biases and beliefs and critiquing your own practices and research subjectivity). Results showed that students, by being involved in and reflecting upon the research process, acquired and refined their technical abilities, process abilities, and basic knowledge. Connections to the inquiry-based learning model were absent, though the teaching methods for the course were consistent with aspects of IBL.
Joshin, N. & Lau, S-K. (2023). Effects of process-oriented guided inquiry learning on approaches to learning, long-term performance, and online learning outcomes. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(5), 3112–3127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1919718
This mixed-method study focused on process-oriented guided inquiry learning, which is student-centered and collaborative, where learners work in groups to assimilate data, develop and apply concepts, and tackle critical thinking questions. The third-year architecture students in this study showed significant improvement on delayed performance and fostered deeper learning practices.
Khasawneh, E., Hodge-Zickerman, A., York, C. S., Smith, T. J., & Mayall, H. (2023). Examining the effect of inquiry-based learning versus traditional lecture-based learning on students’ achievement in college algebra. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 18(1), em0724. https://doi.org/10.29333/iejme/12715
Study evaluated 41 college students in an algebra course. Compared to traditional lecture, those in the inquiry-based learning section had a significant boost in achievement. (Also references the Freeman et al. (2014) study that showed a 55% higher failure rates when using traditional lecture versus active pedagogy for STEM.) In addition to higher academic achievement, learners also showed a heightened ability to communicate, question and construct knowledge, and expressed a greater desire to attend class due to increased motivation and enjoyment of the learning process. Of note, retention rate was 32% for the traditional learning section and 92% for the inquiry-based learning section.
Lazonder, A. W., & Harmsen, R. (2016). Meta-analysis of inquiry-based learning: Effects of guidance. Review of Educational Research, 86(3), 681-718. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315627366
Meta-analysis that looked at 72 studies, showing that guidance positively influences learning outcomes, performance success and inquiry learning activities. Examines different ways of providing guidance for inquiry-based learning, such as prompts and scaffolds. Focused on math and science education.
Levy, B. L. M., Thomas, E. E., Drago, K., & Rex, L. A. (2013). Examining studies of inquiry-based learning in three fields of education: Sparking generative conversation. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(5), 387-408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487113496430
Inquiry-based learning was examined in different fields of education. In science, data collection and analysis are a key component; in history, documents and artifacts are analyzed; in English language arts, writing and speech are often examined. In-depth description and analysis is done through detailed examples of IBL in each of these disciplines. Different definitions of IBL are explored and synthesized, and challenges and opportunities outlined.
Minner, D. D., Levy, A. J., & Century, J. (2010). Inquiry-based science instruction—what is it and does it matter? Results from a research synthesis years 1984 to 2002. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47, 474-496. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1002/tea.20347
This article synthesized findings from 1984 to 2002 in inquiry science instruction for K-12 students. Inquiry-based models showed consistent benefits, including active student engagement, ability to analyze data, scientific content learning and knowledge retention.
Öztürk, B., Kaya, M., & Demir, M. (2022). Does inquiry-based learning model improve learning outcomes? A second order meta-analysis. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6(4), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202217481
Reviewed 10 meta-analyses which showed that inquiry-based learning has a significant effect on learning outcomes. Discipline, location, grade level and other factors did not significantly influence this positive effect. Mobile inquiry-based learning, learning cycle model (learning from experience) and the conceptual change approach (addressing and shifting understanding in significant ways) were shown to have even greater impact.
Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L., de Jong, T., van Riesen, S., Kamp, E., Manoli, C., Zacharia, Z., & Tsourlidaki, E. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational Research Review, 14, 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.003
Outlines a common framework for inquiry-based learning with five phases: Orientation, Conceptualization, Investigation, Conclusion, and Discussion. Synthesizes how various scholars and educators have defined inquiry-based learning and clarifies term usage, and emphasizes the importance of reflection throughout many of the phases. Largely science-focused.
Schmid, S., & Bogner, F. (2015). Does inquiry-learning support long-term retention of knowledge? International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 10(4), 51-70.
This study of 138 grade nine students showed an increase in knowledge both after six and twelve weeks. Both short- and long-term memory had significant gains. Also, students with lower pre-knowledge reached comparable levels with those who had higher pre-knowledge scores; all learners showed higher knowledge scores post-lesson.
Schmid, S., & Bogner, F. (2019). Hearing: An inquiry-based learning module linking biology & physics. The American Biology Teacher, 81(7), 485-489. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26848548
Describes a structured inquiry-based lesson for grade 10 students, which was able to close the gender gap due to inquiry-based learning’s ability to reduce barriers to learning (e.g., less pressure, small group work, more engagement, motivation through autonomy). This hands-on activity links biology with physics. Students visit different stations (no special equipment required) where they conduct different experiments, e.g., on how to distinguish different frequencies. Studies by the same authors (using this activity) showed more investment by students in the process and long-term retention of content knowledge.
Sotiriou, S., Bybee, R. W., & Bogner, F. X. (2017). Pathways – A case of large-scale implementation of evidence-based practice in scientific inquiry-based science education. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(2), 8-17. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v6n2p8
Empirical evidence was gathered from over 5000 science teachers across Europe to consider teaching practice and professional development in relation to inquiry-based learning in science education. Their conclusions emphasize the need to be self-aware of teaching practices and their limitations, being leaders in informing their peers of alternative (and more effective) pedagogical options, and the need for IBL training in order to shift out of comfort zones. Collectively, these can foster a new culture of teaching.
Summerlee, A., & Murray, J. (2010). The impact of enquiry-based learning on academic performance and student engagement. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 40(2), 78-94.
This article concludes that first-year university students who learn how to learn, and engage in enquiry-based learning (a synonym for IBL), garner a boost in confidence and academic performance. Those entering with the lowest grades showed the largest improvement in grades-based performance. Students taught via enquiry-based learning also relied less on instructors and Wikipedia as resource materials, and showed greater use of peer-reviewed articles and specialized research websites and databases.
Theobald, K., & Ramsbotham, J. (2019). Inquiry-based learning and clinical reasoning scaffolds: An action research project to support undergraduate students’ learning to ‘think like a nurse’. Nurse Education in Practice, 38, 59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2019.05.018
This study employed a social constructivist framework to examine the application of active learning, specifically inquiry-based learning, in undergraduate nursing. Challenges and successes were documented, including ‘opting in and out’ (learners multi-tasking between the assigned activity and non-class behaviours such as social media; technology being a distraction), ‘driving and reframing’ (time needed for relationship building; unfamiliarity with letting students lead the process; reluctance of instructors to relinquish control), and ‘creating and realising new understandings’ (higher order processing observed in small groups; importance of co-constructing a supportive learning community. For those unfamiliar with IBL, concerted effort is needed to shift to this educational model.
Voet, M., & De Wever, B. (2019). Teachers’ adoption of inquiry-based learning activities: The importance of beliefs about education, the self, and the context. Journal of Teacher Education, 70(5), 423-440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487117751399
Surveyed 536 teachers and how their beliefs about education, self, and learning context influences their adoption and implementation of inquiry-based learning for teaching history in high school. This study showed that academics often misperceive student ability to engage in critical and higher order thinking, and that better understanding of the nature of knowledge (e.g., epistemology, rationalism, empiricism, objectivism/subjectivism) and how it is constructed improves the adoption of inquiry-based learning.